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The sheath electric potential is referenced to a shell potential phi and decays exponentially with characteristic length equal to the Debye length Rd.
At the end of 2024, Dutch courts rejected on appeal a case brought by climate advocacy groups against Shell, overturning a landmark ruling handed down three years earlier.
The 2014 infrared brightening of the M31-2014-DS1 progenitor was caused by the star expelling a thick shell of gas and dust from its outermost layers as its core ran out of nuclear fuel.
Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which prevents electrons, protons, and neutrons from sharing the same quantum state and underpins the electronic shell structure of the periodic table.
A satellite operating in a proposed 2,000 km shell could accumulate 10–15 krad of total ionizing dose in less than a year, degrading dense memory stacks rapidly.
A collision cascade (Kessler Syndrome) in a high-density shell at 2,000 km could permanently close off large portions of low Earth orbit for future use.
SpaceX’s proposed satellites would be spaced roughly 50 kilometers apart from their nearest neighbor within each orbital shell.
Deep Blue and Interstellor are shell companies tied to Jiutian Weixing and led by a television presenter.
Petroleum Development Oman, in which Shell holds a 34 percent stake, is using satellite monitoring to help find oil reserves undetected by conventional methods.
Europa Clipper and JUICE will examine the interiors, surfaces, and space environments of Jupiter's large moons and probe plume activity and isotopic fingerprints of water in material erupting from Europa's icy shell.
Under gravity, denser, salt-rich surface ice on Europa can sink into the shell interior in a delamination-like process, potentially carrying surface-generated oxidants and nutrients toward the ocean.
Instruments on NASA's Europa Clipper are designed to probe ice shell thickness, internal structure, composition, and geological activity relevant to testing the proposed delamination mechanism.
Model simulations indicate that, over a broad range of salt concentrations, dense surface ice can sink all the way to the base of Europa's ice shell if there is at least modest weakening in the source region.
The findings align with the objectives of NASA's Europa Clipper mission, which was launched in 2024 to perform multiple close flybys of Europa to investigate its ice shell, subsurface ocean, and potential to support life.
If salt-driven delamination operates across many regions of Europa's shell, it would represent an efficient, continuous pathway to recycle surface material into the subsurface ocean.
Europa holds more liquid water beneath its frozen shell than all of Earth's oceans combined.
The study offers a prediction for how compositional and structural variations in Europa's ice shell might map to zones of active material exchange between the surface and interior.
Green and Cooper used computer models to test whether salty, nutrient-bearing ice could descend through Europa's ice shell and how far it could travel.
Catherine Cooper and Austin Green proposed that bands or patches of salt-rich surface ice on Europa can detach from the surrounding shell once they are sufficiently weakened.
Washington State University researchers Catherine Cooper and Austin Green adapted the Earth process of crustal delamination to explain material transport in Europa's ice shell.